| Preface |
| A Theory of Adaptation / Part 1： |
| Aptations and Selective Agencies / Chapter 1： |
| Natural Selection and Adaptation |
| The Recognition of Aptations |
| Effectiveness, Improvement, and Escalation |
| Environmental Challenges and Pathways of Adaptation |
| The Ranking of Selective Agencies |
| Limits to Adaptation / Chapter 2： |
| The Nature of Limitation |
| Genetic and Developmental Limitation |
| Ecological Limitation |
| The Spatial Dimension |
| Summary of the Theory of Adaptation |
| Hypotheses and Their Evaluation in a Historical Science / Chapter 3： |
| Predictions from the Theory of Adaptation |
| The Nature of Historical Inquiry |
| Artifacts and Resolution in the Fossil Record |
| Functional Morphology and Ecological Inference in Fossils |
| The Acquisition of Resources / Part 2： |
| Mechanisms and History of Competition / Chapter 4： |
| Types of Competition |
| Clones and Colonies |
| Competition in Plants |
| Metabolic Rate and Competition |
| Competition for Mates |
| Summary |
| Safe Places, Anachronistic Aptations, and the Recycling of Resources / Chapter 5： |
| The Invasion of Safe Places and Its Consequences |
| The Identification of Safe Places |
| Deep Water |
| Caves and Interstitial Environments |
| The Infaunal Environment |
| Bioerosion and the Endolithic Environment |
| Fresh Water and the Dry Land |
| Parasitism and Mutualism |
| The Predators of Armored Animals: Functional Morphology and History / Chapter 6： |
| Methods of Subjugation |
| The History of Molluscivory |
| Summary and Conclusions |
| The Evolution of Armor and Locomotion / Part 3： |
| The Functional Morphology and History of Gastropod Armor / Chapter 7： |
| The Functions of Armor |
| The Characteristics of Gastropod Shell Armor |
| The Effectiveness of Gastropod Armor |
| The History of Gastropod Armor |
| The History of Traces of Predation |
| Opportunistic Armor: The Evolution of the Conchicolous Habit / Chapter 8： |
| The Conchicolous Habit |
| Benefits and Risks of the Conchicolous Habit |
| The Effects of Shell Supply |
| Improving the Shell Resource |
| The History of the Conchicolous Habit |
| Evolutionary Effects of Conchicoles on Shell-Builders |
| Locomotion and the Evolution of Movement in Gastropods / Chapter 9： |
| General Features of Locomotion |
| Locomotion in Gastropods |
| The History of Gastropod Burrowing |
| Armor and Locomotion in Cephalopods / Chapter 10： |
| Adaptational Dilemmas |
| The History of Cephalopod Armor |
| Locomotion in Cephalopods |
| Armor and Locomotion in Bivalved Animals / Chapter 11： |
| The Bivalve Shell |
| Vivalve Armor |
| Patterns of Armor in Space and Time |
| Traces of Predation |
| Locomotion in Pelecypods |
| Armor and Locomotion in Articulated Animals / Chapter 12： |
| Functional Possibilities and Limitations |
| Arthropod Molting |
| Conglobation in Arthropods |
| The Carapace Form in Arthropods |
| Size in Land Arthropods |
| Bamacles |
| Echinoderms |
| Armor in Vertebrates |
| Swimming in Vertebrates |
| Running in Land Animals |
| Powered Flight |
| Escalation, Diversification, and Extinction / Part 4： |
| The Dynamics of Escalation / Chapter 13： |
| A Review of the Evidence Pertaining to Escalation |
| A Chronology of Phanerozoic Escalation |
| The Role of Extrinsic Events |
| Conditions Favorable to Escalation |
| Marine Transgressions and Productivity |
| Climatic Change and Biotic Interchange |
| Intrinsic Factors: The Importance of Nutrients |
| Extinction / Chapter 14： |
| A Theory of Extinction |
| Timing, Frequency, and Magnitude of Extinction |
| The Decrease in Extinction Rate |
| Selectivity |
| Population Size and Geographical Range |
| Post-Crisis Conditions |
| Implications, Difficulties, and Future Directions / Chapter 15： |
| The Domain of Individual Adaptation |
| Evolutionary Progress |
| Objections and Alternative Interpretations |
| Future Research |
| Appendix |
| References |
| Index |
| Preface |
| A Theory of Adaptation / Part 1： |
| Aptations and Selective Agencies / Chapter 1： |
| Natural Selection and Adaptation |
| The Recognition of Aptations |
| Effectiveness, Improvement, and Escalation |
