| Chapter 1. Introduction |
| 1.1. Near-Field Optics and Photonics 1 |
| 1.1.1. Optical Processes and Electromagnetic Interactions 1 |
| 1.2. Ultra-High-Resolution Near-Field Optical Microscopy (NOM) 4 |
| 1.2.1. From Interference-to Interaction-Type Optical Microscopy 4 |
| 1.2.2. Development of Near-Field Optical Microscopy and Related Techniques 6 |
| 1.3. General Features of Optical Near-Field Problems 10 |
| 1.3.1. Optical Processes and the Scale of Interest 10 |
| 1.3.2. Effective Fields and Interacting Subsystems 12 |
| 1.3.3. Electromagnetic Interaction in a Dielectric System 15 |
| 1.3.4. Optical Near-Field Measurements 20 |
| 1.4. Theoretical Treatment of Optical Near-Field Problems 25 |
| 1.4.1. Near-Field Optics and Inhomogeneous Waves 25 |
| 1.4.2. Field-Theoretic Treatment of Optical Near-Field Problems 28 |
| 1.4.3. Explicit Treatment of Field-Matter Interaction 32 |
| 1.5. Remarks on Near-Field Optics and Outline of This Book 33 |
| 1.5.1. Near-Field Optics and Related Problems 33 |
| 1.5.2. Outline of This Book 34 |
| 1.6. References 35 |
| Chapter 2. Principles of Near-Field Optical Microscopy |
| 2.1. An Example of Near-Field Optical Microscopy 43 |
| 2.2. Construction of the NOM System 45 |
| 2.2.1. Building Blocks of the NOM System 45 |
| 2.2.2. Environmental Conditions 47 |
| 2.2.3. Functions of the Building Blocks 48 |
| 2.3. Theoretical Description of Near-Field Optical Microscopy 50 |
| 2.3.1. Basic Character of the NOM Process 50 |
| 2.3.3. Demonstration of Localization in the Near-Field Interaction 53 |
| 2.3.4. Representation of the Spatial Localization of an Electromagnetic Event 55 |
| 2.3.5. Model Description of a Local Electromagnetic Interaction 55 |
| 2.4. Near-Field Problems and the Tunneling Process 56 |
| 2.4.1. Bardeen's Description of Tunneling Current in STM 57 |
| 2.4.2. Comparison of the Theoretical Aspects of NOM and STM 58 |
| 2.5. References 61 |
| Chapter 3. Instrumentation |
| 3.1. Basic Systems of a Near-Field Optical Microscope 63 |
| 3.1.1. Modes of Operation 66 |
| 3.1.2. Position Control of the Probe 69 |
| 3.1.3. Mechanical Components 74 |
| 3.1.4. Noise Sources Internal to the NOM 75 |
| 3.1.5. Operation under Special Circumstances 78 |
| 3.2. Light Sources 82 |
| 3.2.1. Basic Properties of Lasers 82 |
| 3.2.2. Characteristics of CW Lasers 84 |
| 3.2.3. Additional Noise Properties of CW Lasers 88 |
| 3.2.4. Short-Pulse Generation 94 |
| 3.2.5. Nonlinear Optical Wavelength Conversion 97 |
| 3.3. Light Detection and Signal Amplification 98 |
| 3.3.1. Detector 98 |
| 3.3.2. Signal Detection and Amplification 103 |
| 3.4. References 111 |
| Chapter 4. Fabrication of Probes |
| 4.1. Sharpening of Fibers by Chemical Etching 113 |
| 4.1.1. A Basic Sharpened Fiber 114 |
| 4.1.2. A Sharpened Fiber with Reduced-Diameter Cladding 118 |
| 4.1.3. A Pencil-Shaped Fiber 119 |
| 4.1.4. A Flattened-Top Fiber 122 |
| 4.1.5. A Double-Tapered Fiber 127 |
| 4.2. Metal Coating and Fabrication of a Protruded Probe 130 |
| 4.2.1. Removal of Metallic Film by Selective Resin Coating 132 |
| 4.2.2. Removal of Metallic Film by Nanometric Photolithography 135 |
| 4.3. Other Noverl Probes 139 |
| 4.3.1. Functional Probes 139 |
| 4.3.2. Optically Trapped Probes 141 |
| 4.4. References 141 |
| Chapter 5. Imaging Experiments |
| 5.1. Basic Features of the Localized Evanescent Field 143 |
| 5.1.1. Size-Dependent Decay Length of the Field Intensity 143 |
| 5.1.2. Manifestation of the Short-Range Electromagnetic Interaction 146 |
| 5.1.3. High Discrimination Sensitivity of the Evanescent Field Intensity Normal to the Surface 149 |
| 5.2. Imaging Biological Samples 152 |
| 5.2.1. Imaging by the C-Mode 152 |
| 5.2.2. Imaging by the I-Mode 161 |
| 5.3. Spatial Power Spectral Analysis of the NOM Image 170 |
| 5.4. References 177 |
| Chapter 6. Diagnostics and Spectroscopy of Photonic Devices and Materials |
| 6.1. Diagnosing a Dielectric Optical Waveguide 179 |
| 6.2. Spatially Resolved Spectroscopy of Lateral p-n Junctions in Silicon-Doped Gallium Arsenide 184 |
| 6.2.1. Photoluminescence and Electroluminescence Spectroscopy 185 |
| 6.2.2. Photocurrent Measurement by Multiwavelength NOM 191 |
| 6.3. Photoluminescence Spectroscopy of a Semiconductor Quantum Dot 196 |
| 6.4. Imaging of Other Materials 201 |
| 6.4.1. Fluorescence Detection from Dye Molecules 201 |
| 6.4.2. Spectroscopy of Solid-State Materials 205 |
| 6.5. References 207 |
| Chapter 7. Fabrication and Manipulation |
| 7.1. Fabrication of Photonic Devices 209 |
| 7.1.1. Development of a High-Efficiency Probe 212 |
| 7.1.2. Development of a Highly Sensitive Storage Medium 212 |
| 7.1.3. Fast Scanning of the Probe 213 |
| 7.2. Manipulating Atoms 213 |
| 7.2.1. Zero-Dimensional Manipulation 214 |
| 7.2.2. One-Dimensional Manipulation 216 |
| 7.3. References 231 |
| Chapter 8. Optical Near-Field Theory |
| 8.1. Introduction 235 |
| 8.2. Electromagnetic Theory as the Basis of Treating Near-Field Problems 237 |
| 8.2.1. Microscopic Electromagnetic Interaction and Averaged Field 237 |
| 8.2.2. Optical Response of Macroscopic Matter 241 |
| 8.2.3. Optical Response of Small Objects and the Idea of System Susceptibility 244 |
| 8.2.4. Electromagnetic Boundary Value Problem 245 |
| 8.3. Optical Near-Field Theory as an Electromagnetic Scattering Problem 255 |
| 8.3.1. Self-Consistent Approach for Multiple Scattering Problems 255 |
| 8.3.2. Scattering Theory in the Near-Field Regime Based on Polarization Potential and Magnetic Current 260 |
| 8.4. Diffraction Theory in Near-Field Optics 275 |
| 8.4.1. Diffraction of Light from Subwavelength Aperture 275 |
| 8.4.2. Kirchhoff's Diffraction Integral and Far-Field Theory 276 |
| 8.4.3. Small-Aperture Diffraction and Equivalent Problem 277 |
| 8.4.4. Magnetic Current Distribution and Self-Consistency 278 |
| 8.4.5. Leviatan's "Exact" Solutions for the Aperture Problem 280 |
| 8.5. Institutive Model of Optical Near-Field Processes 281 |
| 8.5.1. Short-Range Quasistatic Nature of Optical Near-Field Processes 281 |
| 8.5.2. Intuitive Model Based on Yukawa-Type Screened Potential 282 |
| 8.5.3. Application of Virtual Photon Model for Diffraction from a Small Aperture 285 |
| 8.5.4. Virtual Photon Model of NOM 288 |
| 8.5.5. Meaning of the Screened Potential Model and Physical Meaning of the Virtual Photon 292 |
| 8.6. References 297 |
| Chapter 9. Theoretical Description of Near-Field Optical Microscope |
| 9.1. Electromagnetic Processes Involved in the Near-Field Optical Microscope 300 |
| 9.2. Representation of the Electromagnetic Field and the Interaction Propagator 302 |
| 9.2.1. Spherical Representation of Scalar Waves 302 |
| 9.2.2. Vector Nature of the Electromagnetic Field 307 |
| 9.3. States of Vector Fields and Their Representations 316 |
| 9.3.1. State of Vector Plane Waves 316 |
| 9.3.2. State of Vector Spherical Waves 318 |
| 9.3.3. State of Vector Cylindrical Waves 319 |
| 9.3.4. Spatial Fourier Representation of Electromagnetic Fields 319 |
| 9.3.5. Multipole Expansion of Vector Plane Waves 321 |
| 9.4. Angular Spectrum Representation of Electromagnetic Interactions 324 |
| 9.4.1. Angular Spectrum Representation of Scattering Problems 325 |
| 9.4.2. Meaning of the Angular Spectrum Representation 327 |
| 9.4.3. Angular Spectrum Representation of Scalar Multipole Field and Propagator 329 |
| 9.4.4. Angular Spectrum Representation of Vector Multipole Field and Propagator 332 |
| 9.4.5. Angular Spectrum Representation of Cylindrical Field and Propagator 340 |
| 9.4.6. Transformation between Spherical and Cylindrical Representations 341 |
| 9.4.7. Summary: Representations of the Electromagnetic Fields Transformations between Mode Functions 343 |
| 9.5. Near-Field Interaction of Dielectric Spheres Near a Planar Dielectric Surface 347 |
| 9.5.1. Sample-Probe Interaction at a Dielectric Surface 348 |
| 9.5.2. Mode Description of Evanescent Waves of Fresnel 351 |
| 9.5.3. Multipolar Representation of Evanescent Modes 352 |
| 9.5.4. Near-Field Interaction of Dielectric Spheres at a Planar Dielectric Surface 359 |
| 9.6. References 379 |
| Index 381 |
| Chapter 1. Introduction |
| 1.1. Near-Field Optics and Photonics 1 |
| 1.1.1. Optical Processes and Electromagnetic Interactions 1 |
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