| Preface |
| Contents |
| List of Contributors |
| 1. Introduction 1 |
| 1.1 Near-Field Optics and Related Technologies 1 |
| 1.2 History of Near-Field Optics and Related Technologies 2 |
| 1.3 Basic Features of an Optical Near Field 3 |
| 1.3.1 Optically “Near” System 3 |
| 1.3.2 Effective Field and Evanescent Field 5 |
| 1.3.3 Near-Field Detection of Effective Fields 6 |
| 1.3.4 Role of a Probe Tip 8 |
| 1.4 Building Blocks of Near-Field Optical Systems 9 |
| 1.5 Comments on the Theory of Near-Field Optics 11 |
| 1.6 Composition of This Book 13 |
| References 13 |
| 2. Principles of the Probe 15 |
| 2.1 Basic Probe 15 |
| 2.1.1 Optical Fiber Probe for the Near-Field Optical Microscope 15 |
| 2.1.2 Principle of the Imaging Mechanism: Dipole-Dipole Interaction 16 |
| 2.1.3 Resolution 17 |
| 2.1.4 Contrast 19 |
| 2.1.5 Sensitivity 24 |
| 2.2 Functional Probe: New Contrast Mechanisms 25 |
| 2.2.1 Signal Conversion by Functional Probes 25 |
| 2.2.2 Absorption and Emission: Radiative and Nonradiative Energy Transfer 26 |
| 2.2.3 Resonance, Nonlinearity, and Other Mechanisms 27 |
| References 29 |
| 3. Probe Fabrication 31 |
| 3.1 Introduction 31 |
| 3.2 Selective Etching of a Silica Fiber Composed of a Core and Cladding 34 |
| 3.2.1 Geometrical Model of Selective Etching 34 |
| 3.2.2 Pure Silica Fiber with a Fluorine Doped Cladding 35 |
| 3.2.3 GeO2 Doped Fiber 36 |
| 3.2.4 Tapered Fibers for Optical Transmission Systems 37 |
| 3.3 Selective Etching of a Dispersion Compensating Fiber 38 |
| 3.3.1 Shoulder-Shaped Probe 38 |
| 3.3.1.1 Shoulder-Shaped Probe with a Controlled Cladding Diameter 38 |
| 3.3.1.2 Shoulder-Shaped Probe with a Nanometric Flattened Apex 40 |
| 3.3.1.3 Double-Tapered Probe 42 |
| 3.3.2 Pencil-Shaped Probe 45 |
| 3.3.2.1 Pencil-Shaped Probe with an Ultra-Small Cone Angle 45 |
| 3.3.2.2 Pencil-Shaped Probe with a Nanometric Apex Diameter 47 |
| 3.4 Protrusion-Type Probe 51 |
| 3.4.1 Selective Resin Coating Method 52 |
| 3.4.2 Chemical Polishing Method 54 |
| 3.5 Hybrid Selective Etching of a Double-Cladding Fiber 56 |
| 3.5.1 Triple-Tapered Probe 56 |
| 3.5.2 Geometrical Model of Selective Etching of a Double-Cladding Fiber 57 |
| 3.5.3 Application-Oriented Probes: Pencil-Shaped Probe and Triple-Tapered Probe 59 |
| 3.6 Probe for Ultraviolet NOM Applications 62 |
| 3.6.1 UV Single-Tapered Probe 62 |
| 3.6.2 UV Triple-Tapered Probe 65 |
| 3.6.2.1 Advanced Method Based on Hybrid Selective Etching of a Double Core Fiber 65 |
| 3.6.2.2 Geometrical Model 67 |
| References 68 |
| 4. High-Throughput Probes 71 |
| 4.1 Introduction 71 |
| 4.2 Excitation of the HE-Plasmon Mode 73 |
| 4.2.1 Mode Analysis 73 |
| 4.2.2 Edged Probes for Exciting the HE-Plasmon Mode 74 |
| 4.3 Multiple-Tapered Probes 77 |
| 4.3.1 Double-Tapered Probe 77 |
| 4.3.2 Triple-Tapered Probe 82 |
| References 87 |
| 5. Functional Probes 89 |
| 5.1 Introduction 89 |
| 5.2 Methods of Fixation 90 |
| 5.3 Selecting a Functional Material 92 |
| 5.4 Probe Characteristics and Applications 93 |
| 5.4.1 Dye-Fixed Probes 93 |
| 5.4.2 Chemical Sensing Probes 94 |
| 5.5 Future Directions 98 |
| References 99 |
| 6. Instrumentation of Near-Field Optical Microscopy 101 |
| 6.1 Operation Modes of NOM 101 |
| 6.1.1 c-Mode NOM 102 |
| 6.1.2 i-Mode NOM 104 |
| 6.1.3 Comparative Features of Modes of NOM 105 |
| 6.2 Scanning Control Modes 107 |
| 6.2.1 Constant-height Mode 107 |
| 6.2.2 Constant-Distance Mode 108 |
| 6.2.2.1 Shear-force Feed Back 108 |
| 6.2.2.2 Optical Near-Field Intensity Feedback 111 |
| References 114 |
| 7. Basic Features of Optical Near-Field and Imaging 117 |
| 7.1 Resolution Characteristics 117 |
| 7.1.1 Longitudinal Resolution 117 |
| 7.1.2 Lateral Resolution 120 |
| 7.2 Factors Influencing Resolution 123 |
| 7.2.1 Influence of Probe Parameters 124 |
| 7.2.2 Dependence on Sample-Probe Separation 124 |
| 7.3 Polarization Dependence 125 |
| 7.3.1 Influence of Polarization on the Images of an Ultrasmooth Sapphire Surface 126 |
| 7.3.2 Influence of Polarization on the Images of LiNbO3 Nanocrystals 130 |
| References 130 |
| 8. Imaging Biological Specimens 133 |
| 8.1 Introduction 133 |
| 8.2 Observation of Flagellar Filaments by c-Mode NOM 133 |
| 8.2.1 Imaging in Air 134 |
| 8.2.2 Imaging in Water 136 |
| 8.3 Observation of Subcellular Structures of Neurons by i-Mode NOM 136 |
| 8.3.1 Imaging in Air Under Shear-Force Feedback 137 |
| 8.3.1.1 Imaging of Neurons Without Dye Labeling 138 |
| 8.3.1.2 Imaging of Neurons Labeled with Toluidine Blue 139 |
| 8.3.2 Imaging in Water Under Optical Near-Field Intensity Feedback 140 |
| 8.3.2.1 Imaging in Air 140 |
| 8.3.2.2 Imaging in PBS 142 |
| 8.4 Imaging of Microtubules by c-Mode NOM 144 |
| 8.5 Imaging of Fluorescent-Labeled Biospecimens 145 |
| 8.6 Imaging DNA Molecules by Optical Near-Field Intensity Feedback 148 |
| References 151 |
| 9. Diagnosing Semiconductor Nano-Materials and Devices 153 |
| 9.1 Fundamental Aspects of Near-Field Study of Semiconductors 153 |
| 9.1.1 Near-Field Spectroscopy of Semiconductors 153 |
| 9.1.2 Optical Near Field Generated by a Small Aperture and Its Interaction with Semiconductors 154 |
| 9.1.3 Operation in Illumination-Collection Hybrid Mode 156 |
| 9.2 Multidiagnostics of Lateral p-n Junctions 158 |
| 9.2.1 Sample and Experimental Set-up 158 |
| 9.2.2 Spatially Resolved Photoluminescence Spectroscopy 159 |
| 9.2.3 Two-Dimensional Mapping of Photoluminescence Intensity 163 |
| 9.2.4 Collection-Mode Imaging of Electroluminescence 163 |
| 9.2.5 Multiwavelength Photocurrent Spectroscopy 164 |
| 9.3 Low-Temperature Single Quantum Dot Spectroscopy 169 |
| 9.3.1 Near-Field single quantum dot spectroscopy 169 |
| 9.3.2 Low-Temperature NOM 170 |
| 9.3.3 Sample and Experimental Set-up 171 |
| 9.3.4 Fundamental Performance of the System 172 |
| 9.3.5 Physical Insight of Single Quantum Dot Photoluminescence 174 |
| 9.3.6 Observation of Other Types of Quantum Dots 176 |
| 9.4 Ultraviolet Spectroscopy of Polysilane Molecules 178 |
| 9.4.1 Polysilanes 178 |
| 9.4.2 Near-Field Ultraviolet Spectroscopy 180 |
| 9.4.3 Imaging and Spectroscopy of Polysilane Aggregates 181 |
| 9.5 Raman Spectroscopy of Semiconductors 183 |
| 9.5.1 Near-Field Raman Spectroscopy 183 |
| 9.5.2 Raman Imaging and Spectroscopy of Polydiacetylene and Si 184 |
| 9.6 Diagnostics of A1 Stripes in an Integrated Circuit 186 |
| 9.6.1 Principle of Detection 186 |
| 9.6.2 Heating with a Metallized Probe 187 |
| 9.6.3 Heating by an Apertured Probe 188 |
| References 189 |
| 10. Toward Nano-Photonic Devices 193 |
| 10.1 Introduction 193 |
| 10.2 Use of Surface Plasmons 193 |
| 10.2.1 Principles of Surface Plasmons 193 |
| 10.2.2 Observation of Surface Plasmons 195 |
| 10.2.3 Toward Two-Dimensional Devices 197 |
| 10.2.4 Toward Three-Dimensional Devices 200 |
| 10.2.5 A Protruded Metallized Probe with an Aperture 204 |
| 10.3 Application to High-Density Optical Memory 207 |
| 10.3.1 Problems to Be Solved 207 |
| 10.3.2 Approaches to Solving the Problems 208 |
| 10.3.2.1 Structure of the Read-Out Head 208 |
| 10.3.2.2 Storage Probe Array 210 |
| 10.3.2.3 Track-less Read-out 210 |
| 10.3.3 Fabrication of a Two-Dimensional Planar Probe Array 212 |
| References 214 |
| 11. Near-Field Optical Atom Manipulation: Toward Atom Photonics 217 |
| 11.1 Introduction 217 |
| 11.1.1 Control of Gaseous Atoms: From Far Field to Near Field 217 |
| 11.1.2 Dipole Force 219 |
| 11.1.3 Atomic Quantum Sheets: Atom Reflection Using a Planar Optical Near Field 220 |
| 11.1.4 Atomic Quantum Wires: Atom Guidance Using a Cylindrical Optical Near Field 221 |
| 11.1.5 Atomic Quantum Dots: Atom Manipulation Using a Localized Optical Near Field 222 |
| 11.2 Cylindrical Optical Near Field for Atomic Quantum Wires 224 |
| 11.2.1 Exact Light-Field Modes in Hollow Optical Fibers 224 |
| 11.2.2 Approximate Light-Field Modes in Hollow Optical Fibers 227 |
| 11.2.3 Field Intensity of the LP Modes 229 |
| 11.3 Atomic Quantum Wires 230 |
| 11.3.1 Near-Field Optical Potential 230 |
| 11.3.2 Laser Spectroscopy of Guided Atoms with Two-Step Photoionization 231 |
| 11.3.3 Observation of Cavity QED Effects in a Dielectric Cylinder 235 |
| 11.3.4 Atomic Quantum Wires with a Light Coupled Sideways 239 |
| 11.4 Optically Controlled Atomic Deposition 240 |
| 11.4.1 Spatial Distribution of Guided Atoms 241 |
| 11.4.2 Precise Control of Deposition Rate 243 |
| 11.4.3 In-line Spatial Isotope Separation 244 |
| 11.5 Near-Field Optical Atomic Funnels 246 |
| 11.5.1 Atomic Funnel with Atomic Quantum Sheet 247 |
| 11.5.2 Sisyphus Cooling Induced by Optical Near Field 248 |
| 11.5.3 Monte Carlo Simulations 251 |
| 11.6 Atomic Quantum Dots 254 |
| 11.6.1 Phenomenological Approach to the Interaction Between Atoms and the Localized Optical Near Field 254 |
| 11.6.2 Atom Deflection 256 |
| 11.6.3 Atom Trap with a Sharpened Optical Fiber 258 |
| 11.6.4 Three-Dimensional Atom Trap 259 |
| 11.7 Future Outlook 261 |
| References 263 |
| 12. Related Theories 267 |
| 12.1 Comparison of Theoretical Approaches 267 |
| 12.2 Semi-microscopic and Microscopic Approaches 270 |
| 12.2.1 Basic Equations 270 |
| 12.2.2 Example of an Evanescent Field 272 |
| 12.2.3 Direct and Indirect Field Propagators 273 |
| 12.2.4 Electric Susceptibility of Matter 275 |
| 12.3 Numerical Examples 277 |
| 12.3.1 Weak vs. Strong Coupling 277 |
| 12.3.2 Near-Field- and Far-Field-Propagating Signals 280 |
| 12.3.3 Scanning Methods 282 |
| 12.3.4 Possibility of Spin-Polarization Detection 284 |
| 12.4 Effective Field and Massive Virtual Photon Model 288 |
| 12.5 Future Direction 290 |
| References 290 |
| Index 295 |
図書
