Preface |
AIJ Committee Members |
Editors and Authors |
PART I. FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF EARTHQUAKE MOTION |
1. Earthquake Source Mechanisms and Their Characteristics 1 |
1.1 Overview of earthquake sources [R. Inoue, K. Shimazaki, and M. Takeo] 2 |
1.1.1 Fault models 2 |
1.1.2 Quantification of earthquakes 9 |
1.1.3 Seismicity 15 |
1.1.4 Earthquakes and active faults 19 |
1.2 Earthquake source spectrum from complex faulting processes [J. Koyama] 22 |
1.2.1 Earthquake source spectra 22 |
1.2.2 Acceleration spectra 35 |
1.2.3 Earthquake magnitude and complex faulting processes 45 |
2. Propagation and Attenuation of Seismic Waves 65 |
2.1 Observed attenuation of seismic waves [M. Takemura] 65 |
2.1.1 Definition of a Q-value 65 |
2.1.2 Evaluation of Q-values from observed records 66 |
2.1.3 Attenuation curves 73 |
2.2 Seismic wave propagation in a homogeneous random medium [M. Kawano] 79 |
2.2.1 Review of the problems 79 |
2.2.2 Effective wave number 80 |
2.2.3 Average wave motion 81 |
2.2.4 Numerical example 82 |
3. Amplification of Seismic Waves 97 |
3.1 Amplification of body waves [J. Shibuya] 98 |
3.1.1 Effects of local site conditions on damages and earthquake motion 98 |
3.1.2 Body waves in layered media 102 |
3.1.3 Nonlinear response of soil layers 105 |
3.2 Excitation of surface waves in multilayered ground [S. Noda] 106 |
3.2.1 Significance of surface waves 106 |
3.2.2 Surface waves in layered media 107 |
3.2.3 Spatial and temporal variation of earthquake motion 111 |
3.2.4 Simulation of surface waves 112 |
3.2.5 Site amplification factors 115 |
3.3 Effects of surface and subsurface irregularities [H. Kawase] 118 |
3.3.1 Various types of irregularities 118 |
3.3.2 Material heterogeneity 119 |
3.3.3 Input wave type 120 |
3.3.4 Surface irregularities 120 |
3.3.5 Subsurface irregularities 134 |
4. Intensity of Earthquake Motion 157 |
4.1 Ground motion severity measures and structure damage [S.Midorikawa] 157 |
4.1.1 Ground motion severity measures 157 |
4.1.2 Damage and ground motion intensity 161 |
4.2 Seismic intensity distribution of large earthquakes [H. Kagami] 166 |
4.2.1 Spatial patterns of isoseismals and factors affecting them 167 |
4.2.2 Utilization of seismic intensity data 172 |
4.3 Seismic intensity measurement and its application [S. Okada] 176 |
4.3.1 Advantage of using seismic intensity measurements 176 |
4.3.2 Seismic intensity scales 177 |
4.3.3 Prospects of an advanced seismic intensity scale 184 |
4.3.4 Seismic intensity measurements as the key to seismic disaster management 184 |
PART II. EARTHQUAKE MOTION OBSERVATION AND GEOTECHNICAL SURVEY |
1. Observation of Strong Ground Motion 191 |
1.1 Historical review, instrumentation, and observation system [Y. Kitagawa] 191 |
1.1.1 Strong ground motion accelerographs 191 |
1.1.2 Observation of subsurface earthquake motion 198 |
1.2 Array observation of strong ground motion [K. Kudo and T. Tanaka] 199 |
1.2.1 Brief historical review 199 |
1.2.2 Purpose and method 200 |
1.2.3 Examples 201 |
1.3 Data processing and databases for strong motion records [S. Sugito] 206 |
1.3.1 Digitization and correction 206 |
1.3.2 Databases 211 |
1.3.3 Current situation regarding the release of data in Japan 216 |
1.4 Application of strong ground motion records and future tasks [K. Ishida and M. Tohdo] 217 |
1.4.1 Application of strong ground motion records 217 |
1.4.2 Future tasks of strong motion recording systems 225 |
1.4.3 Future development of a world-wide data exchange system 227 |
2. Subsurface Investigation and Soil Dynamics 231 |
2.1 Geophysical properties and soil investigation [N. Yoshida] 231 |
2.1.1 In-situ tests 232 |
2.1.2 Laboratory tests 234 |
2.2 Deformation characteristics of soils [N. Yoshida] 237 |
2.2.1 Evaluation at small strains 238 |
2.2.2 Evaluation at large strains 242 |
2.2.3 Strength characteristics 246 |
2.3 Modeling the stress-strain relationship of soils [N. Yoshida] 250 |
2.3.1 1-dimensional analysis 250 |
2.3.2 2- and 3-dimensional analysis 255 |
2.3.3 Equivalent linear method 256 |
2.4 Soil liquefaction [N. Yoshida] 258 |
2.4.1 Mechanism of liquefaction 258 |
2.4.2 Damage caused by soil liquefaction 259 |
2.4.3 Evaluation of liquefaction potential 261 |
2.4.4 Effective stress analysis for liquefaction 266 |
2.4.5 Liquefaction-induced large ground displacement 271 |
3. Survey of Deep Subsurface Structure 277 |
3.1 Artificial seismic sources [H. Yamanaka] 277 |
3.2 Surveying methods [H. Yamanaka and S. Zama] 281 |
3.2.1 Seismic refraction method 281 |
3.2.2 Seismic reflection method 283 |
3.2.3 Other geophysical methods 288 |
3.3 Exploration results in Japan [S. Zama] 292 |
3.3.1 Examples 292 |
3.3.2 Comparison of exploration results obtained by different methods 300 |
3.4 Applications to earthquake engineering problems [H. Yamanaka] 304 |
3.5 Future prospects [K. Seo] 308 |
4. Measurement of Microtremors 315 |
4.1 Microtremor or microvibration [N. Taga] 315 |
4.1.1 Definition 315 |
4.1.2 Measurement 315 |
4.1.3 Nature 317 |
4.1.4 Applications 319 |
4.1.5 Examples 322 |
4.1.6 Special cases 323 |
4.2 Long-period microtremors [H. Kagami] 324 |
4.2.1 Observation scheme 324 |
4.2.2 Analysis and interpretation 325 |
PART III. PREDICTION OF STRONG GROUND MOTION AND ITS APPLICATION TO EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING |
1. Simulation and Prediction of Strong Ground Motion 335 |
1.1 Theoretical approach [K. Irikura and T. Iwata] 335 |
1.1.1 Basic theory for simulating ground motion 335 |
1.1.2 Characterization of earthquake ground motions 337 |
1.1.3 Numerical simulations of earthquake ground motions 345 |
1.2 Semi-empirical approach [K. Irikura, T. Iwata, and M. Takemura] 349 |
1.2.1 Basic theory and review 349 |
1.2.2 Modeling of heterogeneous faulting 363 |
1.2.3 Stochastic modeling and scaling relation of strong motion spectra 370 |
1.3 Empirical approach [M. Takemura] 377 |
1.3.1 Attenuation curves in near-source regions 377 |
1.3.2 Duration time of strong ground motion 383 |
1.3.3 Stochastic simulation of high-frequency ground motion 386 |
2. Effects of Surface Geology on Strong Ground Motion 395 |
2.1 General review of site effects studies [M. Motosaka and T. Ohta] 395 |
2.1.1 Effects of soil irregularity and heterogeneity on strong ground motion 395 |
2.1.2 Average characteristics and effects of surface geology 402 |
2.2 Effects of surface geology on strong motion during destructive earthquakes [Y. Hisada and S. Midorikawa] 406 |
2.2.1 Strong ground motion in Mexico City during the 1985 Mexico earthquake 406 |
2.2.2 Strong ground motion during the 1989 Loma Prieta, California, earthquake 412 |
2.3 International experiments on ground motion prediction [C. Cramer and K. Kudo] 416 |
2.3.1 The Turkey Flat, California, experiment 416 |
2.3.2 The Ashigara Valley, Japan, experiment 420 |
3. Seismic Zonation 435 |
3.1 Seismic macrozonation [H. Murakami] 435 |
3.1.1 Purpose and overview of macrozonation 435 |
3.1.2 Statistical and probabilistic approach 437 |
3.1.3 An approach that reflects geological fault information 439 |
3.1.4 Linkage to microzonation and future research needs 442 |
3.2 Seismic microzonation map [H. Kagami] 443 |
3.2.1 Evaluation of seismic input motions and ground failure 443 |
3.2.2 Risk zonation map 448 |
3.2.3 Recent trends and future problems 453 |
3.3 Seismic zonation and earthquake risk management [M. Naganoh] 455 |
3.3.1 Critical need for earthquake risk management 455 |
3.3.2 Seismic disaster processes 456 |
3.3.3 Damage assessment and earthquake planning scenarios 458 |
3.3.4 Countermeasures and studies implemented by the government 463 |
3.3.5 Countermeasures and studies implemented by the business community 464 |
3.3.6 Urban disaster prevention planning 465 |
4. Strong Ground Motion in Seismic Design 471 |
4.1 Seismic design in current codes [S. Nagahashi, M. Tohdo, K. Wakamatsu, and M. Yamada] 471 |
4.1.1 Philosophy behind earthquake resistant design 471 |
4.1.2 The Building Standard Law of Japan 472 |
4.1.3 High-rise buildings 476 |
4.1.4 Specialized buildings 479 |
4.2 Approaches to new seismic design codes [M. Hisano, Y. Inoue, M. Kawano, M. Niwa, S. Ohba, T. Ohta, M. Tohdo, K. Ukai, and H. Yokota] 481 |
4.2.1 Strong ground motion in seismic design in Japan 481 |
4.2.2 Strong ground motion in the Tokyo bay area 483 |
4.2.3 Strong ground motion in the Osaka bay area 491 |
4.2.4 Strong ground motion for new types of buildings 499 |
4.3 Needs and prospects for design earthquake motion [K. Hagio] 502 |
APPENDICES : FINDINGS FROM RECENT EARTHQUAKES |
A1. Overview [H. Kagami] 507 |
A2. Lessons learned from the destructive damage of recent earthquakes in Japan [N. Taga] 515 |
A3. Accumulation of strong ground motion records in Japan [T. Watanabe] 527 |
A4. Review of recent earthquakes 534 |
(1) The 1968 Tokachi-oki earthquake [Y. Kitagawa] 534 |
(2) The 1978 Miyagiken-oki earthquake [J. Shibuya] 537 |
(3) The 1979 Imperial Valley earthquake [S. Midorikawa] 542 |
(4) The 1982 Urakawa-oki earthquake [H. Kagami] 546 |
(5) The 1983 Nihonkai-chubu earthquake [S. Noda] 550 |
(6) The 1984 Naganoken-seibu earthquake [K. Imaoka and N. Taga] 560 |
(7) The 1985 Central Chile earthquake [S. Midorikawa] 565 |
(8) The 1985 Michoacan-Guerrero, Mexico, earthquake [T. Ohta] 568 |
(9) The 1987 Chibaken Toho-oki earthquake [S. Zama] 575 |
(10) The 1989 Loma Prieta, California, earthquake [M. Naganoh] 583 |
Index 593 |